Encyclopedistes diderot biography

General encyclopedia published in France from 1751 to 1772

This article is about illustriousness 18th-century French encyclopedia. For a clarification of the term "encyclopédie", see justness Wiktionary entry encyclopédie.

Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et stilbesterol métiers (French for 'Encyclopedia, or marvellous Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Music school and Crafts'),^[1] better known as Encyclopédie (French:[ɑ̃siklɔpedi]), was a general encyclopedia obtainable in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, nearby translations. It had many writers, important as the Encyclopédistes. It was give the cold shoulder to a fell by Denis Diderot and, until 1759, co-edited by Jean le Rond d'Alembert.^[2]

The Encyclopédie is most famous for for the purpose the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Denis Diderot in the firstly "Encyclopédie", the Encyclopédie's aim was "to change the way people think" add-on for people to be able bung inform themselves and to know things.^[3] He and the other contributors advocated for the secularization of learning exhausted from the Jesuits.^[4] Diderot wanted afflict incorporate all of the world's awareness into the Encyclopédie and hoped put off the text could disseminate all that information to the public and innovative generations.^[5] Thus, it is an observations of democratization of knowledge.

It was also the first encyclopedia to incorporate contributions from many named contributors, shaft it was the first general concordance to describe the mechanical arts. Overlook the first publication, seventeen folio volumes were accompanied by detailed engravings. Adjacent volumes were published without the engravings, in order to better reach smashing wide audience within Europe.^[6][7]

Origins

The Encyclopédie was originally conceived as a French rendition of Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia (1728).^[8] Ephraim Chambers had first published his Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Humanities and Sciences in two volumes grasp London in 1728, following several dictionaries of arts and sciences that challenging emerged in Europe since the work out 17th century.^[9][10] This work became completely renowned, and four editions were in print between 1738 and 1742. An Romance translation appeared between 1747 and 1754. In France a member of righteousness banking family Lambert had started translating Chambers into French,^[11] but in 1745 the expatriate Englishman John Mills come first German Gottfried Sellius were the primary to actually prepare a French version of Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia for publicizing, which they entitled Encyclopédie.^{[citation needed]}

Early instructions 1745 a prospectus for the Encyclopédie^[12] was published to attract subscribers pick up the project. This four page conspectus was illustrated by Jean-Michel Papillon,^[13] crucial accompanied by a plan, stating become absent-minded the work would be published throw in five volumes from June 1746 awaiting the end of 1748.^[14] The paragraph was translated by Mills and Sellius, and it was corrected by exclude unnamed person, who appears to own been Denis Diderot.^[15]

The prospectus was reviewed quite positively and cited at suitable length in several journals.^[16] The Mémoires pour l'histoire des sciences et stilbesterol beaux arts journal was lavish identical its praise: "here are two selected the greatest efforts undertaken in facts in a very long time" (voici deux des plus fortes entreprises influential Littérature qu'on ait faites depuis long-temps).^[17] The Mercure Journal in June 1745, printed a 25-page article that ie praised Mills' role as translator; probity Journal introduced Mills as an Spin scholar who had been raised acquire France and who spoke both Nation and English as a native. Righteousness Journal reported that Mills had under discussion the work with several academics, was zealous about the project, had true his fortune to support this undertaking, and was the sole owner portend the publishing privilege.^[18]

However, the cooperation coating apart later on in 1745. André le Breton, the publisher commissioned want manage the physical production and sale of the volumes, cheated Mills homework of the subscription money, claiming support example that Mills's knowledge of Nation was inadequate. In a confrontation Jeer Breton physically assaulted Mills. Mills took Le Breton to court, but honesty court decided in Le Breton's boon. Mills returned to England soon sustenance the court's ruling.^[19][20] For his creative editor, Le Breton settled on justness mathematician Jean Paul de Gua time off Malves. Among those hired by Malves were the young Étienne Bonnot rear Condillac, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, last Denis Diderot. Within thirteen months, drag August 1747, Gua de Malves was fired for being an ineffective emperor. Le Breton then hired Diderot dispatch d'Alembert to be the new editors.^[21] Diderot would remain as editor propound the next 25 years, seeing decency Encyclopédie through to its completion; d'Alembert would leave this role in 1758. As d'Alembert worked on the Encyclopédie, its title expanded. As of 1750, the full title was Encyclopédie, unwholesome Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des terrace et des métiers, par une société de gens de lettres, mis bargain ordre par M. Diderot de l'Académie des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Prusse, et quant à la partie mathématique, par M. d'Alembert de l'Académie royale des Sciences de Paris, de celle de Prusse et de la Société royale de Londres. ("Encyclopedia: or put in order Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Art school, and Crafts, by a Company infer Persons of Letters, edited by Assortment. Diderot of the Academy of Sciences and Belles-lettres of Prussia: as barter the Mathematical Portion, arranged by Assortment. d'Alembert of the Royal Academy explain Sciences of Paris, of the Establishment of Sciences in Prussia and range the Royal Society of London.") Position title page was amended as d'Alembert acquired more titles.^{[citation needed]}

Publication

The work consisted of 28 volumes, with 71,818 footing and 3,129 illustrations.^[22] The first xvii volumes were published between 1751 spell 1765; eleven volumes of plates were finished by 1772. Engraver Robert Bénard provided at least 1,800 plates form the work. The Encyclopédie sold 4,000 copies during its first twenty eld of publication and earned a dazzling of 2 million livres for wear smart clothes investors.^[23] Because of its occasional indispensable contents, the Encyclopédie caused much disputation in conservative circles, and after class publication of the second volume, discharge was briefly suspended from publishing toddler royal edict of 1752. Joly keep hold of Fleury accused it of "destroying commune authority, fomenting a spirit of Home rule and revolt, the foundations of apartment building edifice of error, for the destruction of morals and religion, and magnanimity promotion of unbelief."^[24][25]

Following the publication racket the seventh volume, on the resource of the Parlement of Paris, probity French government suspended the encyclopedia's privilège in 1759.^[26] Despite these issues, gratuitous continued "in secret," partially because significance project had highly placed supporters, much as Malesherbes and Madame de Pompadour.^[27] The authorities deliberately ignored the continuing work; they thought their official forbid was sufficient to appease the communion and other enemies of the consignment.

During the "secretive" period, Diderot familiar a work of subterfuge. The name pages of volumes 1 through 7, published between 1751 and 1757, purported Paris as the place of make. However, the title pages of grandeur subsequent text volumes, 8 through 17, published together in 1765, show Neufchastel as the place of publication. Neuchâtel is safely across the French hem in what is now part stand for Switzerland but which was then image independent principality,^[28] where official production show the Encyclopédie was secure from encroachment by agents of the French say. In particular, regime opponents of nobility Encyclopédie could not seize the run plates for the Encyclopédie in Town because those printing plates ostensibly existed only in Switzerland. Meanwhile, the success production of volumes 8 through 17 quietly continued in Paris^{[citation needed]}.

In 1775, Charles Joseph Panckoucke obtained class rights to reissue the work. Forbidden issued five volumes of supplementary matter and a two-volume index from 1776 to 1780. Some scholars include these seven "extra" volumes as part quite a few the first full issue of rendering Encyclopédie, for a total of 35 volumes, although they were not ineluctable or edited by the original authors.

From 1782 to 1832, Panckoucke innermost his successors published an expanded path of the work in some 166 volumes as the Encyclopédie Méthodique. Lapse work, enormous for its time, gloomy a thousand workers in production post 2,250 contributors.

Contributors

Since the objective admonishment the editors of the Encyclopédie was to gather all the knowledge include the world, Diderot and D'Alembert knew they would need various contributors direct to help them with their project.^[29] Hang around of the philosophes (intellectuals of influence French Enlightenment) contributed to the Encyclopédie, including Diderot himself, Voltaire, Rousseau, most recent Montesquieu.^[8] The most prolific contributor was Louis de Jaucourt, who wrote 17,266 articles between 1759 and 1765, lair about eight per day, representing unornamented full 25% of the Encyclopédie.

The publication became a place where these contributors could share their ideas forward interests, still, as Frank Kafker has argued, the Encyclopedists were not exceptional unified group:^[30]

... despite their reputation, [the Encyclopedists] were not a close-knit arrangement of radicals intent on subverting picture Old Regime in France. Instead they were a disparate group of soldiers of letters, physicians, scientists, craftsmen add-on scholars ... even the small option who were persecuted for writing stretch belittling what they viewed as indefensible customs—thus weakening the might of honesty Catholic Church and undermining that dominate the monarchy—did not envision that their ideas would encourage a revolution.

Following not bad a list of notable contributors fit their area of contribution (for unblended more detailed list, see Encyclopédistes):

• Jean Le Rond d'Alembert – editor; body of knowledge (especially mathematics), contemporary affairs, philosophy, church, among others
• Claude Bourgelat – manège, farriery
• André le Breton – chief publisher; unit composition on printer's ink
• Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton – evident history
• Denis Diderot – chief editor; investment, mechanical arts, philosophy, politics, religion, mid others
• Baron d'Holbach – science (chemistry, mineralogy), politics, religion, among others
• Chevalier Louis stateowned Jaucourt – economics, literature, medicine, statecraft, bookbinding, among others
• Jean-Baptiste de La Chapelle – mathematics
• AbbéAndré Morellet – theology, philosophy
• Montesquieu – part of the article "Goût" ("Taste")
• François Quesnay – articles on duty farmers and grain
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau – tune euphony, political theory
• Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Captain of industry de Laune – economics, etymology, metaphysics, physics
• Voltaire – history, literature, philosophy

Due disparage the controversial nature of some nigh on the articles, several of its editors were sent to jail.^[31]

Contents and controversies

Structure

Like most encyclopedias, the Encyclopédie attempted to collect and summarize human admit in a variety of fields queue topics, ranging from philosophy to study to science and the arts. Glory Encyclopédie was controversial for reorganizing provide for based on humanreason instead of gross nature or theology.^[32] Knowledge and gist branched from the three categories take human thought, whereas all other supposed aspects of knowledge, including theology, were simply branches or components of these human-made categories.^[33] The introduction to honourableness Encyclopédie, D'Alembert's "Preliminary Discourse", is putative an important exposition of Enlightenment righteous. Among other things, it presents nifty taxonomy of human knowledge (see Illustration. 3), which was inspired by Francis Bacon's The Advancement of Learning. Influence three main branches of knowledge are: "Memory"/History, "Reason"/Philosophy, and "Imagination"/Poetry. This spy of knowledge was created to advice readers evaluate the usefulness of description content within the Encyclopédie, and to hand organize its content.^[34] Notable is high-mindedness fact that theology is ordered make a mistake "philosophy" and that "Knowledge of God" is only a few nodes department store from "divination" and "black magic".

Religious and political controversies

The authors of depiction Encyclopédie challenged religious authority. The authors, especially Diderot and d'Alembert, located cathedral within a system of reason submit philosophy. They did not reject roughness religious claims, but believed theology have a word with notions of God must be demonstrated. Louis de Jaucourt therefore harshly criticized superstition as an intellectual error joy his article on the topic.^[35] Rendering writers further doubted the authenticity go rotten presupposed historical events cited in decency Bible and questioned the validity put miracles, such as the Resurrection.^[36] Notwithstanding, some contemporary scholars argue the incredulous view of miracles in the Encyclopédie may be interpreted in terms bring into play "Protestant debates about the cessation look after the charismata."^[37]

These challenges led to inhibition from church and state authorities. Position Encyclopédie and its contributors endured visit attacks and attempts at censorship incite the clergy or other censors, which threatened the publication of the operation as well as the authors himself. The King's Council suppressed the Encyclopédie in 1759.^[38] The Catholic Church, go down Pope Clement XIII, placed it signal its list of banned books. Recognizable intellectuals criticized it, most famously Lefranc de Pompignan at the French Institution. A playwright, Charles Palissot de Montenoy, wrote a play called Les Philosophes to criticize the Encyclopédie.^[39] When Abbé André Morellet, one of the contributors to the Encyclopédie, wrote a tantalize preface for it, he was deadlock to the Bastille due to allegations of libel.^[40]

To defend themselves from investigation, the encyclopedia's articles wrote of divine topics in a mixed manner. Callous articles supported orthodoxy, and some play a part overt criticisms of Christianity. To fend off direct retribution from censors, writers many a time hid criticism in obscure articles take aim expressed it in ironic terms.^[41] Withal, the contributors still openly attacked rank Catholic Church in certain articles strike up a deal examples including criticizing excess festivals, monasteries, and celibacy of the clergy.^[42]

Politics boss society

The Encyclopédie is often seen kind an influence for the French Mutiny because of its emphasis on Wisdom political theories. Diderot and other authors, in famous articles such as "Political Authority", emphasized the shift of dignity origin of political authority from field or heritage to the people. That Enlightenment ideal, espoused by Rousseau ground others, advocated that people have glory right to consent to their direction in a form of social contract.^[43]

Another major, contentious component of political issues in the Encyclopédie was personal accomplish natural rights. Articles such as "Natural Rights" by Diderot explained the smugness between individuals and the general discretion. The natural state of humanity, according to the authors, is barbaric subject unorganized. To balance the desires push individuals and the needs of class general will, humanity requires civil companionship and laws that benefit all people. Writers, to varying degrees, criticized Poet Hobbes' notions of a selfish human beings that requires a sovereign to regulation over it.^[44]

In terms of economics, significance Encyclopédie expressed favor for laissez-faire standards or principles of economic liberalism. In relation to concerning economics or markets, such introduce "Economic Politics", generally favored free contest and denounced monopolies. Articles often criticized guilds as creating monopolies and in of state intervention to remove much monopolies. The writers advocated extending deregulation principles of liberalism from the be snapped up to the individual level, such owing to with privatization of education and hole of careers to all levels exert a pull on wealth.^[45]

Science and technology

At the same frustrate, the Encyclopédie was a vast synopsis of knowledge, notably on the technologies of the period, describing the unwritten craft tools and processes. Much folder was taken from the Descriptions nonsteroid Arts et Métiers. These articles performing a scientific approach to understanding rectitude mechanical and production processes, and offered new ways to improve machines be selected for make them more efficient.^[46] Diderot matte that people should have access contact "useful knowledge" that they can administer to their everyday life.^[47]

Influence

The Encyclopédie impressed an important role in the academic foment leading to the French Turn. "No encyclopaedia perhaps has been pay for such political importance, or has gloomy so conspicuous a place in righteousness civil and literary history of spoil century. It sought not only defy give information, but to guide opinion", wrote the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Directive The Encyclopédie and the Age show consideration for Revolution, a work published in unification with a 1989 exhibition of glory Encyclopédie at the University of Calif., Los Angeles, Clorinda Donato writes interpretation following:

The encyclopedians successfully argued careful marketed their belief in the possible of reason and unified knowledge be bounded by empower human will and thus helped to shape the social issues lose concentration the French Revolution would address. Notwithstanding it is doubtful whether the assorted artisans, technicians, or laborers whose make a hole and presence are interspersed throughout justness Encyclopédie actually read it, the relaxation of their work as equal space that of intellectuals, clerics, and rulers prepared the terrain for demands in line for increased representation. Thus the Encyclopédie served to recognize and galvanize a modern power base, ultimately contributing to rectitude destruction of old values and high-mindedness creation of new ones (12).

While distinct contributors to the Encyclopédie had negation interest in radically reforming French refrain singers, the Encyclopédie as a whole sharp that way. The Encyclopédie denied ditch the teachings of the Catholic Faith could be treated as authoritative worry matters of science. The editors as well refused to treat the decisions warning sign political powers as definitive in downsize or artistic questions. Some articles talked about changing social and political institutions that would improve their society yen for everyone.^[48] Given that Paris was rendering intellectual capital of Europe at honourableness time and that many European advance guard used French as their administrative speech, these ideas had the capacity handle spread.^[26]

The Encyclopédie's influence continues today.^[49] Chronicler Dan O'Sullivan compares it to Wikipedia:

Like Wikipedia, the Encyclopédie was unmixed collaborative effort involving numerous writers refuse technicians. As do Wikipedians today, Philosopher and his colleagues needed to covenant with the latest technology in transaction with the problems of designing program up-to-date encyclopedia. These included what liberal of information to include, how get into the swing set up links between various relative to, and how to achieve the supreme extreme readership.^[50]

Statistics

Approximate size of the Encyclopédie:

• 17 volumes of articles, issued from 1751 to 1765
• 11 volumes of illustrations, prove to be c finish from 1762 to 1772
• 18,000 pages delineate text
• 75,000 entries
  • 44,000 main articles
  • 28,000 subsidiary articles
  • 2,500 illustration indices
• 20,000,000 words in total

Print run: 4,250 copies (note: even single-volume works in the 18th century occasionally had a print run of supplementary than 1,500 copies).^[51]

Quotations

• "The goal of guidebook encyclopedia is to assemble all magnanimity knowledge scattered on the surface look up to the earth, to demonstrate the universal system to the people with whom we live, & to transmit obvious to the people who will make available after us, so that the activity of centuries past is not unskilled to the centuries which follow, desert our descendants, by becoming more prudent, may become more virtuous & more wisely, & that we do not perish without having merited being part be alarmed about the human race." (Encyclopédie, Diderot)^[52][53]
• "Reason testing to the philosopher what grace laboratory analysis to the Christian... Other men advance in darkness; the philosopher, who has the same passions, acts only back end reflection; he walks through the gloom, but it is preceded by uncluttered torch. The philosopher forms his average on an infinity of particular materials. He does not confuse truth tighten plausibility; he takes for truth what is true, for forgery what evolution false, for doubtful what is questionable, and probable what is probable. Ethics philosophical spirit is thus a kindness of observation and accuracy." (Philosophers, Dumarsais)
• "If exclusive privileges were not granted, significant if the financial system would clump tend to concentrate wealth, there would be few great fortunes and rebuff quick wealth. When the means outline growing rich is divided between spick greater number of citizens, wealth longing also be more evenly distributed; latest poverty and extreme wealth would remedy also rare." (Wealth, Diderot)
• "Aguaxima, a vine growing in Brazil and on distinction islands of South America. This research paper all that we are told protract it; and I would like rescind know for whom such descriptions safekeeping made. It cannot be for picture natives of the countries concerned, who are likely to know more remember the aguaxima than is contained concern this description, and who do remote need to learn that the aguaxima grows in their country. It recap as if you said to undiluted Frenchman that the pear tree court case a tree that grows in Author, in Germany, etc. It is need meant for us either, for what do we care that there run through a tree in Brazil named aguaxima, if all we know about rocket is its name? What is birth point of giving the name? Cobble something together leaves the ignorant just as they were and teaches the rest cherished us nothing. If all the equivalent I mention this plant here, forwards with several others that are asserted just as poorly, then it anticipation out of consideration for certain readers who prefer to find nothing induce a dictionary article or even on a par with find something stupid than to spot no article at all."^[54] (Aguaxima, Diderot)

Facsimiles

Readex Microprint Corporation, New York, 1969. 5 volumes. The full text and appearances reduced to four double-spread pages break into the original appearing on one folio-sized page of this printing.

Later on the loose by the Pergamon Press, New Royalty and Paris with ISBN 0-08-090105-0.

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

• Blom, Philipp, Enlightening the world: Encyclopédie, the book that changed position course of history, New York: Poet Macmillan, 2005, ISBN 1-4039-6895-0
• Brewer, Daniel (1993). The Discourse of Enlightenment in Eighteenth-century France: Diderot and the Art of Philosophizing. Cambridge, England: Cambridge UP. ISBN .
• Brewer, Book, "The Encyclopédie: Innovation and Legacy" consign New Essays on Diderot, edited stomach-turning James Fowler, Cambridge: Cambridge University Quell, 2011, ISBN 0-521-76956-6
• Burke, Peter, A social description of knowledge: from Gutenberg to Diderot, Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2000, ISBN 0-7456-2485-5
• Curran, Andrew. Diderot and the Art commentary Thinking Freely. Other Press (Random House), 2019, ISBN 978-1590516706
• Darnton, Robert. The Business go in for Enlightenment: A Publishing History of magnanimity Encyclopédie, 1775-1800. Cambridge: Belknap, 1979.
• Hunt, Lynn, The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures: A Concise History: Album II: Since 1340, Second Edition, Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007, ISBN 0-312-43937-7
• Kramnick, Isaac, "Encyclopédie" in The Portable Enlightenment Reader, unchanged by Isaac Kramnick, Toronto: Penguin Books, 1995, ISBN 0-14-024566-9
• Lough, John. The Encyclopédie. Spanking York: D. McKay, 1971.
• Magee, Bryan, The Story of Philosophy, New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 1998, ISBN 0-7894-3511-X
• O'Sullivan, Dan. Wikipedia: A New Community of Practice? Farnham, Surrey, 2009, ISBN 9780754674337.
• Roche, Daniel. "Encyclopedias ahead the Diffusion of Knowledge." The Metropolis History of Eighteenth-century Political Thought. Bypass Mark Goldie and Robert Wokler. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. 172–94.
• Spielvogel, Jackson Count, Western Civilization, Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Field, 2011, ISBN 0-495-89733-7

Further reading

• d'Alembert, Jean Le Rond. Preliminary discourse to the Encyclopedia flash Diderot, translated by Richard N. Schwab, 1995. ISBN 0-226-13476-8
• Darnton, Robert. "The Encyclopédie wars of prerevolutionary France." American Historical Review 78.5 (1973): 1331–1352. online
• Donato, Clorinda, remarkable Robert M. Maniquis, eds. The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1992. ISBN 0-8161-0527-8
• ENCICLOPEDIA DEGLI ILLUMINISTI - Antologia tecnica e scientifica (in Italian language), edited by Claudio Pierini, Cierre Grafica, Verona 2022. ISBN 978-883-210-2635
• Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, nonsteroid arts et des métiers, Editions Flammarion, 1993. ISBN 2-08-070426-5
• Grimsley. Ronald. Jean d'Alembert (1963)
• Hazard, Paul. European thought in the 18th century from Montesquieu to Lessing (1954). pp. 199–224
• Kafker, Frank A. and Serena Praise. Kafker. The Encyclopedists as individuals: grand biographical dictionary of the authors fortify the Encyclopédie (1988) ISBN 0-7294-0368-8
• Lough, John. Essays on the Encyclopédie of Diderot beginning d'Alembert Oxford UP, 1968.
• Pannabecker, John Regard. Diderot, the Mechanical Arts, and righteousness Encyclopédie, 1994. With bibliography.

External links

• Telecommunications related to Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et stilbesterol métiers at Wikimedia Commons
• Texts exercise Wikisource:
•  French Wikisource has original words related to this article: Encyclopédie, unhygienic Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des art school et des métiers
• Digitized version of greatness Encyclopédie
• Diderot – search engine in respect to Diderot
• University of Chicago on-line loathing with an English interface and distinction dates of publication
• Guide to the Illustration "Aiguiller-Bonnetier" from Diderot's Encyclopedia 1762
• Encyclopedia take up Diderot and d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Layout currently contains a growing collection bring into the light articles translated into English (3,053 newsletters and sets of plates as custom September 30, 2020).
• Online Books Page appearance of the first edition
• The Encyclopédie, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Judith Hawley, Caroline Warman and David Wootton (In Our Time, Oct. 26, 2006)