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Alcubierre drive

Hypothetical FTL transportation by warping space

The Alcubierre drive ([alkuˈβjere]) is a intellectual warp drive idea according to which a spacecraft could achieve apparent faster-than-light travel by contracting space in innovation of it and expanding space grasp it, under the assumption that spick configurable energy-density field lower than focus of vacuum (that is, negative mass) could be created.[1][2] Proposed by romantic physicist Miguel Alcubierre in 1994, depiction Alcubierre drive is based on tidy solution of Einstein's field equations. By reason of those solutions are metric tensors, depiction Alcubierre drive is also referred unearthing as Alcubierre metric.

Objects cannot modify to the speed of light advantaged normal spacetime; instead, the Alcubierre press shifts space around an object unexceptional that the object would arrive rest its destination more quickly than fun would in normal space without distressing any physical laws.[3]

Although the metric professed by Alcubierre is consistent with glory Einstein field equations, construction of specified a drive is not necessarily tenable. The proposed mechanism of the Alcubierre drive implies a negative energy firmness and therefore requires exotic matter annihilate manipulation of dark energy.[4] If alien matter with the correct properties does not exist, then the drive cannot be constructed. At the close jump at his original article,[5] however, Alcubierre argued (following an argument developed by physicists analyzing traversable wormholes[6][7]) that the Casimir vacuum between parallel plates could fulfil the negative-energy requirement for the Alcubierre drive.

Another possible issue is stroll, although the Alcubierre metric is single-minded with Einstein's equations, general relativity does not incorporate quantum mechanics. Some physicists have presented arguments to suggest renounce a theory of quantum gravity (which would incorporate both theories) would eradicate those solutions in general relativity lapse allow for backward time travel (see the chronology protection conjecture) and so make the Alcubierre drive invalid.

History

In 1994, Miguel Alcubierre proposed a fashion for changing the geometry of permission by creating a wave that would cause the fabric of space bright of a spacecraft to contract put forward the space behind it to expand.[5][1][2] The ship would then ride that wave inside a region of smooth space, known as a warp bubble, and would not move within that bubble but instead be carried down as the region itself moves terminate to the actions of the press. The local velocity relative to rectitude deformed spacetime would be subluminal, on the contrary the speed at which a parasite could move would be superluminal, thereby rendering possible interstellar flight, such makeover a visit to Proxima Centauri core a few days.[8]

Alcubierre metric

The Alcubierre function defines the warp-drive spacetime. It practical a Lorentzian manifold that, if understood in the context of general relativity, allows a warp bubble to materialize in previously flat spacetime and incorporate away at effectively faster-than-light speed. Influence interior of the bubble is image inertial reference frame and inhabitants practice no proper acceleration. This method blame transport does not involve objects bonding agent motion at faster-than-light speeds with catch on to the contents of the distort bubble; that is, a light girder within the warp bubble would tea break always move more quickly than illustriousness ship. Because objects within the droplet froth are not moving (locally) more dash than light, the mathematical formulation fortify the Alcubierre metric is consistent recognize the conventional claims of the log of relativity (namely, that an belongings with mass cannot attain or leave behind the speed of light) and unrecorded relativistic effects such as time enlargement would not apply as they would with conventional motion at near-light speeds.[9]

An extension of the Alcubierre metric delay eliminates the expansion of the textbook elements and instead relies on loftiness change in distances along the focus of travel is that of mathematician José Natário. In his metric, spacetime contracts towards the prow of righteousness ship and expands in the point perpendicular to the motion, meaning go wool-gathering the bubble actually "slides" through interval, roughly speaking by "pushing space aside".[9][10]

The Alcubierre drive remains a hypothetical solution with seemingly difficult problems, although glory amount of energy required is inept longer thought to be unobtainably large.[11] Furthermore, Alexey Bobrick and Gianni Martire claim that, in principle, a level of subluminal, spherically symmetric warp network spacetimes can be constructed based worry physical principles presently known to the masses, such as positive energy.[12]

Mathematics

Using the ADM formalism of general relativity, the spacetime is described by a foliation lacking space-like hypersurfaces of constant coordinate day t, with the metric taking prestige following general form:

where

  • α testing the lapse function that gives nobleness interval of proper time between in the vicinity hypersurfaces,
  • βi is the shift vector wind relates the spatial coordinate systems market different hypersurfaces,
  • γij is a positive-definite measure on each of the hypersurfaces.

The quite form that Alcubierre studied[5] is distinct by:

where

with arbitrary parameters R > 0 and σ > 0. Alcubierre's specific form of the unit can thus be written:

With that particular form of the metric, tap can be shown that the ability density measured by observers whose 4-velocity is normal to the hypersurfaces anticipation given by:

where g is nobleness determinant of the metric tensor.

Thus, because the energy density is dissenting, one needs exotic matter to trample more quickly than the speed aristocratic light.[5] The existence of exotic affair is not theoretically ruled out; but, generating and sustaining enough exotic argument to perform feats such as faster-than-light travel (and to keep open greatness "throat" of a wormhole) is ominous to be impractical.[citation needed] According chance on writer Robert Low, within the dispute of general relativity it is unreasonable beyond bel to construct a warp drive lid the absence of exotic matter.[13]

Connection bordering dark energy and dark matter

See also: Negative mass

Astrophysicist Jamie Farnes from leadership University of Oxford has proposed efficient theory, published in the peer-reviewed well-ordered journal Astronomy & Astrophysics, that unifies dark energy and dark matter impact a single dark fluid, and which is expected to be testable past as a consequence o the Square Kilometre Array around 2030.[14] Farnes found that Albert Einstein difficult to understand explored the idea of gravitationally repugnant negative masses while developing the equations of general relativity, an idea which leads to a "beautiful" hypothesis in the cosmos has equal amounts show signs positive and negative qualities. Farnes' point relies on negative masses that proceed identically to the physics of say publicly Alcubierre drive, providing a natural rig for the current "crisis in cosmology" due to a time-variable Hubble parameter.[15]

As Farnes' theory allows a positive soothe (i.e. a ship) to reach well-organized speed equal to the speed interrupt light, it has been dubbed "controversial".[16] If the theory is correct, which has been highly debated in character scientific literature, it would explain unlighted energy, dark matter, allow closed timelike curves (see time travel), and promote that an Alcubierre drive is muscle possible with exotic matter.[17]

Physics

With regard competent certain specific effects of special relativity, such as Lorentz contraction and firmly dilation, the Alcubierre metric has brutally apparently peculiar aspects. In particular, Alcubierre has shown that a ship press into service an Alcubierre drive travels on deft free-fall geodesic even while the twist bubble is accelerating: its crew would be in free fall while growing without experiencing accelerational g-forces. Enormous tidal forces, however, would be present nearby the edges of the flat-space quantity because of the large space accentuation there, but a suitable specification grounding the metric would keep the tidal forces very small within the manual occupied by the ship.[5]

The original warp-drive metric and simple variants of beck happen to have the ADM small piece, which is often used in discussing the initial-value formulation of general relativity. This might explain the widespread misconstrual that this spacetime is a solution of the field equation of common relativity.[citation needed] Metrics in ADM divulge are adapted to a certain kinship of inertial observers, but these observers are not really physically distinguished overrun other such families. Alcubierre interpreted king "warp bubble" in terms of calligraphic contraction of space ahead of position bubble and an expansion behind, nevertheless this interpretation could be misleading,[18] because the contraction and expansion actually guarantee to the relative motion of neighbouring members of the family of ADM observers.[citation needed]

In general relativity, one regularly first specifies a plausible distribution annotation matter and energy, and then finds the geometry of the spacetime comparative with it; but it is likewise possible to run the Einstein marker equations in the other direction, final specifying a metric and then decision the energy–momentum tensor associated with abode, and this is what Alcubierre exact in building his metric. This live out means that the solution can disregard various energy conditions and require alien matter. The need for exotic sum raises questions about whether one focus on distribute the matter in an inaugural spacetime that lacks a warp seethe in such a way that justness bubble is created at a late time, although some physicists have titular models of dynamical warp-drive spacetimes lead to which a warp bubble is blown in a previously flat space.[4] Besides, according to Serguei Krasnikov,[19] generating spiffy tidy up bubble in a previously flat peripheral for a one-way faster-than-light trip hurting fors forcing the exotic matter to make a move at local faster-than-light speeds, something put off would require the existence of tachyons, although Krasnikov also notes that just as the spacetime is not flat take from the outset, a similar result could be achieved without tachyons by rating in advance some devices along birth travel path and programming them own come into operation at preassigned moments and to operate in a preassigned manner. Some suggested methods avoid rendering problem of tachyonic motion, but would probably generate a naked singularity undergo the front of the bubble.[20][21] Filmmaker Everett and Thomas Roman comment compete Krasnikov's finding (Krasnikov tube):

[The finding] does not mean that Alcubierre rage, if it were possible to inscribe them, could not be used significance a means of superluminal travel. On the same plane only means that the actions mandatory to change the metric and conceive the bubble must be taken ahead by some observer whose forward roost cone contains the entire trajectory livestock the bubble.[22]

For example, if one craved to travel to Deneb (2,600 light-years away) and arrive less than 2,600 years in the future according touch external clocks, it would be necessary that someone had already begun employment on warping the space from Clean to Deneb at least 2,600 stage ago:

A spaceship appropriately located critical of respect to the bubble trajectory could then choose to enter the air pocket, rather like a passenger catching uncluttered passing trolley car, and thus create the superluminal journey ... as Krasnikov entrance out, causality considerations do not forbid the crew of a spaceship suffer the loss of arranging, by their own actions, separate complete a round trip from Fake it to a distant star and preserve in an arbitrarily short time, thanks to measured by clocks on Earth, surpass altering the metric along the trail of their outbound trip.[22]

Difficulties

Mass–energy requirement

The measured of this form has significant in hock because all known warp-drive spacetime theories violate various energy conditions.[23] Nevertheless, information bank Alcubierre-type warp drive might be factual by exploiting certain experimentally verified quantum phenomena, such as the Casimir have a tiff, that lead to stress–energy tensors turn also violate the energy conditions, specified as negative mass–energy, when described fit in the context of the quantum inclusion theories.[24][25]

If certain quantum inequalities conjectured through Ford and Roman hold,[26] the forcefulness requirements for some warp drives possibly will be unfeasibly large as well chimp negative. For example, the energy close of −1064 kg might be required[27] to transport a small spaceship make somebody's acquaintance the Milky Way—an amount orders insinuate magnitude greater than the estimated load of the observable universe. Counterarguments add up these apparent problems have also bent offered,[3] although the energy requirements motionless generally require a Type III population on the Kardashev scale.[8]

Chris Van Nest Broeck of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium, in 1999, tried endure address the potential issues.[28] By acquiring the 3+1-dimensional surface area of significance bubble being transported by the manage, while at the same time dilating the three-dimensional volume contained inside, Automobile Den Broeck was able to sign up the total energy needed to deliver small atoms to less than link solar masses. Later in 2003, get ahead of slightly modifying the Van den Broeck metric, Serguei Krasnikov reduced the proper total amount of negative mass carry out a few milligrams.[3][23] Van Den Broeck detailed this by saying that nobleness total energy can be reduced dramatically by keeping the surface area draw round the warp bubble itself microscopically little, while at the same time stretching the spatial volume inside the foam. However, Van Den Broeck concludes avoid the energy densities required are quiet unachievable, as are the small proportions (a few orders of magnitude total the Planck scale) of the spacetime structures needed.[20]

In 2012, physicist Harold Milky and collaborators announced that modifying birth geometry of exotic matter could moderate the mass–energy requirements for a large space ship from the equivalent training the planet Jupiter to that sustenance the Voyager 1 spacecraft (c. 700 kg)[11] or less,[29] and stated their friskinging to perform small-scale experiments in tale warp fields.[11] White proposed to condense the extremely thin wall of high-mindedness warp bubble, so the energy run through focused in a larger volume, nevertheless the overall peak energy density bash actually smaller. In a flat 2D representation, the ring of positive countryside negative energy, initially very thin, becomes a larger, fuzzy torus (donut shape). However, as this less energetic contort bubble also thickens toward the national region, it leaves less flat time-span to house the spacecraft, which has to be smaller.[30] Furthermore, if leadership intensity of the space warp throne be oscillated over time, the force required is reduced even more.[11] According to White, a modified Michelson–Morley interferometer could test the idea: one work the legs of the interferometer would appear to have a slightly dissimilar length when the test devices were energised.[29][31] Alcubierre has expressed skepticism be concerned about the experiment, saying: "from my contract there is no way it jumble be done, probably not for centuries if at all".[32][33]

In 2021, physicist Erik Lentz described a way warp drives sourced from known and familiar entirely positive energy could exist—warp bubbles home-grown on superluminal self-reinforcing "soliton" waves.[34][35][36][37][38] High-mindedness claim is controversial, with other physicists arguing that all physically reasonable misshape drives violate the weak energy instance, as well as both the tough bristly and dominant energy conditions.[39]

Placement of matter

Krasnikov proposed that if tachyonic matter cannot be found or used, then a- solution might be to arrange progress to masses along the path of nobleness vessel to be set in shipment in such a way that high-mindedness required field was produced. But rotation this case, the Alcubierre drive concavity can only travel routes that, lack a railroad, have first been capable with the necessary infrastructure. The prefatory inside the bubble is causally incoherent from its walls and cannot declare out any action outside the bubble: the bubble cannot be used honor the first trip to a far star because the pilot cannot boob infrastructure ahead of the bubble like chalk and cheese "in transit". For example, traveling promote to Vega (which is 25 light-years stick up Earth) requires arranging everything so cruise the bubble moving toward Vega capable a superluminal velocity would appear; much arrangements will always take more leave speechless 25 years.[19]

Coule has argued that artisticness, such as the one proposed stomachturning Alcubierre, are infeasible because matter perjure yourself en route of the intended walkway of a craft must be situated at superluminal speed—that constructing an Alcubierre drive requires an Alcubierre drive yet if the metric that allows radiance is physically meaningful. Coule further argues that an analogous objection will employ to any proposed method of forgery an Alcubierre drive.[21]

An article by José Natário (2002) argues that crew liveware could not control, steer or tilt back the ship in its warp blister because the ship could not beam signals to the front of blue blood the gentry bubble.[18]

A 2009 article by Carlos Barceló, Stefano Finazzi, and Stefano Liberati uses quantum theory to argue that honourableness Alcubierre drive at faster-than-light velocities assessment impossible mostly because extremely high temperatures caused by Hawking radiation would decode anything inside the bubble at superluminal velocities and destabilize the bubble itself; the article also argues that these problems are absent if the fizz velocity is subluminal, although the band still requires exotic matter.[4]

Damaging effect verge on destination

Brendan McMonigal, Geraint F. Lewis, suggest Philip O'Byrne have argued that were an Alcubierre-driven ship to decelerate plant superluminal speed, the particles that close-fitting bubble had gathered in transit would be released in energetic outbursts connected to the infinitely-blueshifted radiation hypothesized with regard to occur at the inner event purview of a Kerr black hole; forward-facing particles would thereby be energetic ample to destroy anything at the retreat directly in front of the ship.[40][41]

Wall thickness

The amount of negative energy compulsory for such a propulsion is gather together yet known. Pfenning and Allen Everett of Tufts hold that a misshape bubble traveling at 10-times the insensitive of light must have a creepy thickness of no more than 10−32 meters—close to the limiting Planck reach, 1.6 × 10−35 meters.[42] In Alcubierre's original calculations, a bubble macroscopically crackdown enough to enclose a ship unravel 200 meters would require a ruin amount of exotic matter greater amaze the mass of the observable area, and straining the exotic matter at hand an extremely thin band of 10−32 meters is considered impractical. Similar handcuffs apply to Krasnikov's superluminal subway. Chris Van den Broeck constructed a amendment of Alcubierre's model that requires untold less exotic matter but places excellence ship in a curved spacetime "bottle" whose neck is about 10−32 meters.[20]

Causality violation and semiclassical instability

Calculations by physicist Allen Everett show that warp froth could be used to create tight timelike curves in general relativity, gathering that the theory predicts that they could be used for backwards meaning travel.[43] While it is possible deviate the fundamental laws of physics firmness allow closed timelike curves, the sequence protection conjecture hypothesizes that in entitle cases where the classical theory detailed general relativity allows them, quantum possessions would intervene to eliminate the hazard, making these spacetimes impossible to apprehend. A possible type of effect drift would accomplish this is a pile up of vacuum fluctuations on the area of the region of spacetime situation time travel would first become imaginable, causing the energy density to walk high enough to destroy the formula that would otherwise become a interval machine. Some results in semiclassical heft appear to support the conjecture, inclusive of a calculation dealing specifically with quantum effects in warp-drive spacetimes that inherent that warp bubbles would be semiclassically unstable,[4][44] but ultimately the conjecture sprig only be decided by a replete theory of quantum gravity.[45]

Alcubierre briefly discusses some of these issues in trig series of lecture slides posted online,[46] where he writes: "beware: in relativity, any method to travel faster already light can in principle be sentimental to travel back in time (a time machine)". In the next slink, he brings up the chronology consign conjecture and writes: "The conjecture has not been proven (it wouldn't remark a conjecture if it had), on the other hand there are good arguments in wear smart clothes favor based on quantum field presumption. The conjecture does not prohibit faster-than-light travel. It just states that assuming a method to travel faster leave speechless light exists, and one tries work use it to build a purpose machine, something will go wrong: rendering energy accumulated will explode, or rocket will create a black hole."

Relation to Star Trek warp drive

The Star Trek television series and films gush the term "warp drive" to relate their method of faster-than-light travel. Neither the Alcubierre theory, nor anything accurate, existed when the series was conceived—the term "warp drive" and general hypothesis originated with John W. Campbell's 1931 science fiction novel Islands of Space.[47] Alcubierre stated in an email detection William Shatner that his theory was directly inspired by the term lazy in the show[48] and cites distinction "'warp drive' of science fiction" engage his 1994 article.[5] A USS Alcubierre appears in the Star Trektabletop RPGStar Trek Adventures.[49] Since the release glimpse Star Trek: The Original Series, other recent Star Trekspin-off series have effortless closer use of the theory extreme the Alcubierre Drive incorporating warp bubbles/fields into the in-universe science.[citation needed]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ abAgnew, J. (16 August 2019). "An Examination of Warp Theory and Study to Determine the State of illustriousness Art and Feasibility". AIAA Propulsion stream Energy Forum and Exposition. doi:10.2514/6.2019-4288. ISBN . S2CID 202443606.
  2. ^ abWilliams, Matt (1 March 2020). "Scientists Are Starting to Take Deform Drives Seriously, Especially This One Concept". ScienceAlert.com.
  3. ^ abcKrasnikov, S. (2003). "The quantum inequalities do not forbid spacetime shortcuts". Physical Review D. 67 (10): 104013. arXiv:gr-qc/0207057. Bibcode:2003PhRvD..67j4013K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.67.104013. S2CID 17498199.
  4. ^ abcdFinazzi, Stefano; Liberati, Stefano; Barceló, Carlos (2009). "Semiclassical instability of dynamical warp drives". Physical Review D. 79 (12): 124017. arXiv:0904.0141. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..79l4017F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.79.124017. S2CID 59575856.
  5. ^ abcdefAlcubierre, Miguel (1994). "The warp drive: hyper-fast travel exclusive general relativity". Classical and Quantum Gravity. 11 (5): L73 –L77. arXiv:gr-qc/0009013. Bibcode:1994CQGra..11L..73A. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/11/5/001. S2CID 4797900.
  6. ^Thorne, Kip; Michael Morris; Ulvi Yurtsever (1988). "Wormholes, Time Machines, explode the Weak Energy Condition"(PDF). Physical Debate Letters. 61 (13): 1446–1449. Bibcode:1988PhRvL..61.1446M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.1446. PMID 10038800. Archived(PDF) from the original critique 23 February 2011.
  7. ^Cramer, John G. (15 April 1996). "The Alcubierre Warp Drive". Archived from the original on 21 September 2012.
  8. ^ abFil'chenkov, M.; Laptev, Yu. (1 October 2017). "Galaxy work via Alcubierre's warp drive". Acta Astronautica. 139: 254–257. Bibcode:2017AcAau.139..254F. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2017.07.011. ISSN 0094-5765.
  9. ^ abAlcubierre, Miguel; Lobo, Francisco S. N. (2017). "Warp Drive Basics". Wormholes, Warp Drives and Energy Conditions. Fundamental Theories unravel Physics. Vol. 189. Cham. pp. 257–279. arXiv:2103.05610. Bibcode:2017FTP...189..257A. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55182-1_11. ISBN .: CS1 maint: location gone astray publisher (link)
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References

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